✍️✍️✍️ The Problem Of Institutional Racism

Image credits. Occup Environ Med. Institutional investors have become more active in managing their portfolios. Walter M. Search all BMC articles The Problem Of Institutional Racism. Health Place. Pointing is The Problem Of Institutional Racism useful The Problem Of Institutional Racism the participants do not share a The Problem Of Institutional Racism institutional vocabulary or even a common language.

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Experiences of racism varied by socioeconomic status. Indigenous adults of low socioeconomic status, whether measured by household income, educational attainment or not being in the labour force, were less likely to experience racism than their higher socioeconomic counterparts. The single exception was that those who were unemployed were also more likely to experience racism. Our findings are consistent with the literature. A possible explanation of why experiences of racism are higher among Indigenous Australians of higher socioeconomic status may be that those who manage to overcome the substantial barriers that Indigenous people continue to face in mainstream society are a minority within a minority.

It may also explain the seeming contradiction of unemployed Indigenous Victorians being more likely to experience racism. Unemployed Indigenous Victorians may also have a higher exposure to mainstream society because such exposure is necessary to receive unemployment benefits. Alternatively, or additionally, it is possible that people of higher socioeconomic status have a greater propensity to report experiences of racism. Our findings that low educational attainment appear to be protective against experiences of racism is of concern given the poorer socioeconomic outcomes associated with low levels of education. There is a large body of research demonstrating the existence of maladaptive problem-focused behavioural responses to racism, such as opting out of formal education as an act of self-protection [ 34 ].

This may help to explain the lower secondary school completion rates among Indigenous children and is supported by a recent study in Victoria, which identified racism within the school system as one of the most challenging issues faced by Indigenous children, particularly at secondary school level [ 35 ]. The implication of this finding is that more needs to be done to eradicate systemic and interpersonal racism within our education system. Currently, what is, or is not, taught in schools about Indigenous history and culture, depends on individual schools. Unfortunately, an attempt to introduce a national curriculum, which embedded education about Indigenous culture, history, and the impact of colonisation, was thwarted in by the Federal government, following a non-independent review of its content [ 37 ].

At a societal level, groups who claim ethnoracial superiority at the expense of those deemed inferior, derive great benefits from the inequitable social and economic living conditions that are generated [ 17 ]. However, for the group deemed to be inferior, chronic experiences of racism are harmful to their mental and physical health [ 38 , 39 , 40 ]. Strengths of our study include that it was based on data from the Victorian Population Health Survey, which has been conducted annually since and is a well-validated population-based survey with a relatively high response rate.

Moreover, the Victorian Population Health Survey collects data on a wide breadth of topics, including the social determinants of health, because it was informed by a public health model of the social determinants of health [ 41 ]. In contrast, most health surveys tend to be informed by the biomedical model of health, which attributes disease to proximate biological factors at the level of the individual and ignores the social determinants of health. Collecting data on the social determinants of health provdes an opportunity to develop policy directions that address racism. Weaknesses of the study, other than those previously described, include the use of two different questions about experiences of racism.

This leaves open the question of potential intersectionality between race and religion and whether we are accurately measuring experiences of racism among participants from the survey which would impact on the prevalence estimate of the combined dataset. The prevalence of experiences of racism among Indigenous participants from the and surveys was Although lower among the Indigenous participants, the difference was not statistically significant. Survey data is cross-sectional, which does not allow for conclcusions to be drawn in relation to cause and effect or its direction.

The data is self-reported raising concerns about bias and accuracy. However, not all data readily lends itself to objective measurement, and experiences of racism are an example [ 34 ]. However, it is self-reported racism that is strongly associated with mental and physical ill-health [ 42 ]. The Victorian Population Health Surveys conducted prior to only surveyed households with landline telephone connections. Yet the exponential uptake of mobile telephones has caused a rapid growth in households that rely solely on mobile telephones and raised concerns that telephone surveys that only include fixed landline connections are losing their population representativeness [ 43 ]. Moreover, Indigenous women have been found to be five times more likely than non-Indigenous women to live in mobile-only households [ 43 ].

Therefore, if the experiences of Indigenous households who have landline telephones are different to those who do not, our findings may not be as population representative as we suppose. As noted by the extensive work of Maggie Walter, the collection, analysis and interpretation of data on Indigenous peoples are not as objective as non-Indigenous peoples claim them to be [ 44 ]. In Australia most research is conceived, conducted and interpreted by non-Indigenous people who are largely of middle class Ango-Celtic origin.

Consequently, the research decisions made reflect the social norms, values and beliefs of the non-Indigenous. This has lead to a lot of research that effectively stigmatises Indigenous people, thus reinforcing racism. For example, there is a disproportionate amount of research that focuses on health behaviours such as smoking and alcohol consumption, comparing Indigenous with non-Indigenous people. Such research concludes that Indigenous people are more likely to engage in unhealthy health behaviours than their non-Indigenous counterparts, which is stigmatising [ 45 ].

This has lead to policies aimed at closing the gap in health between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians being almost exclusively focused on reducing the gap in health behaviours, which is notoriously hard to do in any population. It is the social determinants of health that account for a far greater proportion of the burden of disease. The reasons for this not only reflect the dominance of the biomedical model of health, which was conceived in Europe and the United States, but also Western neoliberal culture that values individualism over collectivism and regards individual responsibility as the pathway to good health. It is at odds with the Indigenous perspective on health.

Imposing such beliefs and values through prioritising this type of research is, arguably, racist. We therefore recognise this as a weakness of our study and join the growing call for better engagement with, and the inclusion of, Indigenous people and Indigenous researchers at all stages of the research process, from conception to publication. Each year the Prime Minster of Australia reports on progress towards closing the gap in Indigenous health. However, it still disproportionately focuses on changing the health behaviours of Indigenous Australians and ignores the wider systemic and interpersonal racism directed against Indigenous Australians [ 48 ].

We contend that the gap is unlikely to be reduced until we comprehensively address racism towards Indigenous Australians [ 49 ]. A large body of work on anti-racism strategies and interventions has been conducted and trialled by the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation [ 50 ]. We refer readers to their website [ 50 ]. Table 5 attempts to summarise potential policies and interventions, by sector, that may effect real societal change in attitudes and behaviours. The list is not meant to be exhaustive, but rather to provoke thought. Many of the policies and interventions are aimed at eliminating systemic racism rather than interpersonal racism which is the subject of this study.

However, all forms of racism ought to be tackled simultaneously to prevent reversion. Moreover, piecemeal approaches to tackling racism that are often underfunded and not sustained have the potential to do more harm than good [ 51 ]. In Australia, a paternalistic ideology continues to pervade policy-making for Indigenous Australian across all levels of government [ 52 ]. This is, therefore a key area for reform.

Paternalistic policies are inherently racist as they do not recognise the right to self-determination and seek to limit the choices of individuals, based on the belief that individuals do not know what is in their best interest. The antithesis of the paternalistic approach is a human rights-based approach. The adoption of a human rights-based approach to policy-making would be more likely to facilitate the elimination of systemic racism which in turn would lead to better health and wellbeing outcomes for Indigenous people.

This study shows that, contrary to the current discourse in Australia that denies the existence of racism, racism directed against Indigenous adults in Victoria is a significant problem and may be associated with lower educational attainment, which may lead to lower socioeconomic status and poorer health outcomes. Therefore, if as a society we truly wish to reduce the gap in health between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians, we should: a acknowledge that racism against our Indigenous counterparts exists; b that it is extensive and harmful; and c that it is a major determinant of the gap in health.

Moreover, racism directed against Indigenous Australians is a problem that needs to be addressed by the dominant non-Indigenous population through challenging and changing beliefs and behaviours in schools, workplaces, the media, the public sector, government and society at large. Harris JW. Hiding the bodies: the myth of the humane colonisation of Australia. Journal of Aboriginal History. Google Scholar. Broome R. Aboriginal Victorians: A history since Life expectancy of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Larson A, et al. It's enough to make you sick: the impact of racism on the health of Aboriginal Australians.

Priest N, et al. Racism and health among urban Aboriginal young people. BMC Public Health. Augoustinos M, Every D. J Lang Soc Psychol. Sanson A, et al. Racism and prejudice: an Australian Psychological Society position paper. Aust Psychol. Berman G, Paradies Y. Racism, disadvantage and multiculturalism: towards effective anti-racist praxis. Ethn Racial Stud. Victorian State Government. Victorian Population Health Survey. Australian Bureau of Statistics. National physical activity guidelines for adults.

Canberra: DoHA; Stata Statistical Software: Release Accessed Aug McNamee R. Confounding and confounders. Occup Environ Med. Kennedy S, et al. The healthy immigrant effect: patterns and evidence from four countries. J Int Migr Integr. Parliament of Australia, Defining Aboriginality in Australia. Current Issues Brief no. Krieger, N. Berkman, I. Kawachi, and M. Glymour, editors. Hausmann LR, et al. Perceived racial discrimination in health care and its association with patients' healthcare experiences: does the measure matter? Ethn Dis. PubMed Google Scholar. Taylor, D. Wright, and L. Zanna and J. Olon, Editors. Hodson G, Esses VM. April 06, Kilolo Kijakazi. April 03, Margery Austin Turner. Black girls are less often recognized as victims of sexual violence and face age- and race-specific barriers to seeking help.

April 04, Sara Bastomski , Janine M. Of the 2. But women bear many burdens of mass incarceration. March 30, Margaret Goff. Closing the racial wealth gap will require targeted policies that help women of color build wealth. March 22, Hannah Hassani. Without visibility, the unique struggles of women of color are absorbed by the larger groups to which they belong. March 08, Margaret Simms. Florida has been particularly aggressive in denying voting rights to people with felony convictions. February 28, Travis Reginal , Jesse Jannetta. Communities across the country are looking at the pervasive consequences of racial segregation. February 27, Ruth Gourevitch , Solomon Greene. The drop in black homeownership has not been uniform across the country.

A growing number of states are evaluating proposals for their likelihood of creating or increasing racial and ethnic inequities. February 23, Leah Sakala. Black History Month is an opportunity to confront racism and structural disadvantages faced by black people in the United States. February 08, Margaret Simms. HUD recently suspended a rule that requires local governments to look at patterns of segregation within their borders. January 24, Mark Treskon , Solomon Greene.

Economic security programs face major cuts as Congress looks to reduce deficit increases that tax changes are expected to generate. December 07, Elaine Waxman , Victoria Tran. The death of year-old Jason Pero is the latest of at least 19 Native Americans shot or tasered by police in December 04, Olugbenga Ajilore. A Federal Reserve study shows how entrepreneurs in less-advantaged communities face significant obstacles to success. November 30, Margaret Simms. Predominantly nonwhite areas in more than 50 of 60 major US cities have below-prime median credit scores. November 20, Caroline Ratcliffe , Steven Brown.

Latinx immigrants are more likely to be victims of certain crimes compared with nonimmigrants, but they face barriers accessing victim services. September 25, Alexandra Ricks. Polling suggests that our collective belief in the American dream is fractured—or worse. September 11, Diana Elliott. Attorney General Jeff Sessions announced today that the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program will be phased out over the next six months. September 05, Audrey Singer , Charmaine Runes. We should do more to shed light on what empowers hatred, the structures that perpetuate division, and the consequences of fear and intimidation. August 15, Sarah Rosen Wartell. August 03, Charmaine Runes.

In response to an abhorrent act of vandalism, James offered a reflection on the intersection of race and class in America. June 02, Justin Milner , Steven Brown. A recent rise in intolerance toward South Asians may make the immigrant experience in rural America even more isolating. May 19, Shiva Kooragayala. May 12, Charmaine Runes. The variation within the Asian population is often overlooked because disaggregated data is difficult to come by. May 03, Margaret Simms. The legal status of land in Indian Country is complicated and makes obtaining mortgages difficult.

April 21, Jasmine Simington , Nancy M. Due to the circumstances in which many people of color find themselves because of structural racism, budgetary shifts will disproportionately affect communities of co. March 21, Margaret Simms , Kilolo Kijakazi. Nearly one in three nonelderly black Americans have past-due medical bills—a concerning number given the consequences for physical and financial health. Gains in black homeownership have been hard won, yet lately black homeownership rates have declined to levels not seen since the s. The controversy is part of a long narrative of land policies explicitly connected to tribal identity and socioeconomic opportunity.

January 09, Jasmine Simington. Modest forms of prejudice and privilege can cause systemic damage, as evidenced by the work of late Nobel laureate Thomas Schelling. December 29, Daniel Kuehn. With employment histories often marked by low-earning jobs and few retirement benefits, older Hispanics are struggling to retire. December 13, Richard W. Raising Bertie, a documentary about rural poverty, follows three African American boys as they navigate school, poverty, relationships, violence, and a world that see.

December 09, Alexandra Tilsley. Darity Jr. October 25, Charmaine Runes. October 17, Sarah Eppler-Epstein. Families of color have, on average, a much harder time getting a mortgage than do white families. October 12, Jim Parrott , Yamillet Payano. Of all gun-related fatalities in , 11, were considered homicides. The rest—more than 19, deaths—were classified as suicides. We must explicitly confront enduring racial barriers not only in the communities where we invest but also in our organizations and modes of work. October 03, Sarah Rosen Wartell. What interventions are most effective at improving the academic success of young men of color?

August 25, Devlin Hanson. Boycotting travel to North Carolina because of House Bill 2 could also have consequences that could harm some of the groups that protestors are concerned about. August 16, Margaret Simms , Adaeze Okoli. The time has come to rethink and reframe the narrative of anti-black racism to better illustrate its disparate impact on all black Americans. August 15, James Jones , Margaret Goff. August 11, Maya Brennan.

July 19, Nancy G. La Vigne , Nicole Weissman. Police shootings of citizens and citizen attacks on police are distinct problems, but the four distinct tragedies we've recently witnessed have required that we. July 19, Akiva Liberman. How can we support the public and policymakers as they work to create a country that is rid of these horrific events—a country where black lives truly matter? July 21, Sarah Eppler-Epstein. Data on police and public encounters isn't always clear, but several studies provide insight on how race might influence the outcomes. July 22, Elaine Waxman.

Acutely tragic, high-profile incidents only scratch the surface of the more complex relationship between policing and the mental health needs of both citizens and off. July 29, Ellen Paddock , Nancy G. One goal of the My Brother's Keeper initiative is to keep boys and young men of color safe from violent crime. When a black family moves into a home in a white neighborhood and is stoned, burned or routed out, they are victims of an overt act of individual racism which most people will condemn. But it is institutional racism that keeps black people locked in dilapidated slum tenements, subject to the daily prey of exploitative slumlords, merchants, loan sharks and discriminatory real estate agents. The society either pretends it does not know of this latter situation, or is in fact incapable of doing anything meaningful about it.

Systemic racism assumes white superiority individually, ideologically and institutionally. The assumption of superiority can pervade thinking consciously and unconsciously. One most obvious example is apartheid , but even with anti-discrimination laws, systemic racism continues. Individuals may not see themselves as racist, but they can still benefit from systems that privilege white faces and voices. The statements highlight taken-for-granted privileges, and enable people to understand how people of colour may experience society differently. Under systemic racism, systems of education, government and the media celebrate and reward some cultures over others.

In employment, names can influence employment opportunities.